German philosopher. His philosophy of pessimism was presented in: The World as Will and Idea (1818) and Will in Nature (1836). He held that reality is a blind impelling force, appearing in individual man as will. The constant mutual resistance of various wills causes strife, and the individual cannot satisfy the wants of his will and therefore he lives in pain. The only escape is negation of the will. Ethics rests only on sympathy for the pain of others.

Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, The World as Will and Representation, Four Books, publ. 1819 by Brockhaus, Leipzig. (English translation by Haldane & Kemp, 1883) Ref. Book I, par. 1, Ger. ed. Biographical data and translations of Schopenhauer's works, as well as extensive commentaries on his ideas have been published in English translation. Rudolf Steiner edited a collected edition of the writings of Schopenhauer, 12 vols. with introduction by Steiner, publ. 1894.